How long governments last
Two clocks for 42 countries and 51 regimes from history: how long the state has existed, and how long its system of government has run without a break.
Two clocks
The state clock starts when the country began as a continuous state. Where that's disputed it uses the definition in the notes, such as independence, a union, or an unbroken line of rule.
The government clock starts at the last clear break in how the country is governed: a revolution, a coup followed by a new constitution, conquest or occupation that ends the old order, or the founding or abolition of a monarchy. Amending a constitution peacefully, changing parties at an election or a new ruler from the same house doesn't reset it.
A country's government can be older than the state: Britain's constitutional order dates from 1689, the state of Great Britain from 1707. Ages are counted to 13 September 2026.
Today's governments, oldest first
Nine of the ten longest-running governments in this set are democracies or limited governments today, and eight of those nine did not start that way. They began with a monarch or a narrow vote and widened it by reform, without the revolution or coup that would have reset the clock. The exception is Oman, an absolute monarchy since 1744.
Some democracies are young because they were founded when a dictatorship fell: Portugal, Spain, South Korea and Brazil have governments between 37 and 50 years old.
Show the table, with notes and sources
| Country | Government since | Years | Government | State since | Years | What counts as the state | Confidence | Notes | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| San Marino contested | 8 October 1600 | 425 | parliamentary republic (Captains Regent diarchy) | 3 September 301 | 1,725 | Traditional founding of republic (official d.F.R. date; contested historically) | medium | State: official traditional founding 301-09-03 (1941 decree). Documented free community by Placito Feretrano 885; communal institutions ~13th c. (Captains Regent from 1244). Current constitutional core: Statutes of 1600 (binding 1600-10-08) still foundational, plus 1974 Declaration of Citizen Rights. Brief Papal occupation 1739-1740 restored. Primary current_gov=1600 Statutes as continuous legal order; alt=301 traditional republic continuity; alt=c.1300 Statuti Comunali. | CIA WF www.factbook.wiki ; Britannica San Marino www.britannica.com ; San Marino Statutes www.sanmarinosite.com ; Placito Feretrano www.sanmarinosite.com |
| United Kingdom contested | 13 February 1689 | 337 | constitutional monarchy / parliamentary | 1 May 1707 | 319 | Acts of Union creating Kingdom of Great Britain (CIA lists multiple milestones; no single independence date) | medium | DUAL-TRACK: State as UK/GB from 1707-05-01 Act of Union (England+Scotland); 1801 Ireland union; 1927 current name. Constitutional order: Glorious Revolution settlement / Bill of Rights 1689 (Parliament supremacy, Protestant succession)—continuous through 1707. House: Hanoverian succession 1714 (Sophia line); Windsor name from 1917. Alt state: England unified c.927; alt gov: unwritten constitution evolutionary. Contested because evolutionary continuity. | CIA WF UK www.factbook.wiki ; Britannica Glorious Revolution www.britannica.com ; Britannica Act of Union 1707 www.britannica.com |
| Oman | 20 November 1744 | 281 | absolute monarchy (sultanate) | 1650 | 376 | Expulsion of Portuguese (CIA); Al Said state from 1744 | high | DUAL-TRACK: Al Bu Said dynasty from Ahmad bin Said elected Imam 1744-11-20—primary current_gov as continuous ruling house/regime. Basic Statute (constitution-like) 1996 is modern written order within same dynasty (palace coup 1970 Qaboos succeeded within house). State Portuguese expulsion 1650. | CIA WF Oman www.factbook.wiki ; Al Bu Said dynasty (secondary summary; cross-check Britannica/CIA) |
| United States | 4 March 1789 | 237 | federal constitutional republic | 4 July 1776 | 250 | Declaration of Independence (recognized 1783-09-03) | high | State from Declaration 1776-07-04. Current constitutional order: US Constitution effective 1789-03-04 (signed 1787-09-17; ratified 1788). Articles of Confederation 1781–1789 prior. Amendments (incl. Bill of Rights) within same order. | CIA WF USA www.factbook.wiki ; US National Archives Constitution www.archives.gov |
| Norway contested | 17 May 1814 | 212 | constitutional monarchy | 7 June 1905 | 121 | Dissolution of union with Sweden (independence; CIA); earlier traditional unification c.872 | high | DUAL-TRACK: Constitution of 1814-05-17 (Eidsvoll) still in force—among world's oldest—continued under Sweden-Norway union then full independence 1905. House of Glücksburg (Haakon VII) from 1905. State independence 1905; alt state traditional c.872 Harald Fairhair. current_gov uses 1814 constitution continuity. | CIA WF Norway www.factbook.wiki ; Stortinget Constitution www.stortinget.no ; Lovdata lovdata.no |
| Netherlands contested | 16 March 1815 | 211 | constitutional monarchy | 23 January 1579 | 447 | Union of Utrecht (break with Spain); independence recognized 1648 (CIA) | medium | DUAL-TRACK: Kingdom of the Netherlands under House of Orange-Nassau from 1815 (William I). Liberal constitutional revision 1848 (Thorbecke) foundational for modern parliamentary monarchy—often treated as current order start; 1815 kingdom continuity also argued. Primary current_gov=1815 kingdom founding; constitutional_order_start=1848 liberal constitution. Batavian/French rupture 1795–1813. | CIA WF Netherlands www.factbook.wiki |
| Switzerland contested | 12 September 1848 | 178 | federal republic | 1 August 1291 | 735 | Traditional founding of Swiss Confederation (Federal Charter; national day; CIA) | medium | State: Federal Charter early August 1291 (official founding narrative since late 19th c.). Rupture: Helvetic Republic 1798; Federal Pact 1815; modern federal state Constitution in force 1848-09-14 (Diet declared passed 1848-09-12). Current order=1848 federal constitution (revised 1874, 1999—legal continuity). Contested whether 1291 or 1848 is 'start'. | CIA WF Switzerland www.factbook.wiki ; admin.ch Federal Charter www.admin.ch ; Swiss Federal Archives 1848 www.bar.admin.ch |
| Denmark | 5 June 1849 | 177 | constitutional monarchy | 965 | 1,061 | Unification/Christianization under Harald Bluetooth c.965 (CIA) | high | DUAL-TRACK: State c.965. Constitutional Act 1849-06-05 established constitutional monarchy; major revision 1953 (same constitutional tradition, female succession etc.). House of Glücksburg from Christian IX 1863. Primary current_gov=1849 (CIA pairs with parliamentary constitutional monarchy). | CIA WF Denmark www.factbook.wiki |
| New Zealand contested | 1852 | 174 | parliamentary constitutional monarchy | 26 September 1907 | 118 | Dominion status from UK (CIA); Treaty of Waitangi 1840 earlier | medium | Uncodified constitution; NZ Constitution Act 1852 foundational colonial responsible government. Dominion 1907; full sovereignty gradual (Statute of Westminster Adoption 1947). Alt state=1840 Treaty. Primary current_gov=1852 constitutional framework continuity (contested vs 1907/1947). | CIA WF New Zealand www.factbook.wiki |
| Canada | 1 July 1867 | 159 | federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy | 1 July 1867 | 159 | Confederation / Constitution Act 1867 (CIA); Statute of Westminster 1931 | high | Constitution Act 1867 (BNA Act) creates Dominion; Constitution Act 1982 patriates amending formula and adds Charter—same constitutional order evolved. Primary=1867. | CIA WF Canada www.factbook.wiki ; Constitution Acts www.laws-lois.justice.gc.ca |
| Tonga contested | 4 November 1875 | 150 | constitutional monarchy | 4 June 1970 | 56 | Independence from UK protectorate (CIA); older indigenous monarchy | medium | DUAL-TRACK: Modern constitutional order from Constitution of 1875 (still basis). Tupou dynasty consolidation mid-19th c. (George Tupou I). Independence 1970 ended protectorate without regime rupture. Ancient Tu'i Tonga lineage claims far older (contested). Primary current_gov=1875 constitution. | CIA WF Tonga www.factbook.wiki |
| Australia | 1 January 1901 | 125 | federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy | 1 January 1901 | 125 | Federation of UK colonies / Commonwealth Constitution commenced (CIA) | high | Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act commenced 1901-01-01. Continuity since; Statute of Westminster 1931 / Australia Acts 1986 advanced sovereignty without replacing constitutional order. | CIA WF Australia www.factbook.wiki ; Australian Constitution www.legislation.gov.au |
| Bhutan | 17 December 1907 | 118 | constitutional monarchy | 17 December 1907 | 118 | Unified hereditary kingdom under first Druk Gyalpo (CIA) | high | DUAL-TRACK: Wangchuck dynasty and unified kingdom from 1907-12-17. Democratic Constitution 2008 transformed to constitutional monarchy—rupture debate: peaceful transition within same dynasty. Primary current_gov=1907 house/kingdom; constitutional_order=2008. Treaty of Friendship India 1949. | CIA WF Bhutan www.factbook.wiki ; Country Studies Bhutan 1907 countrystudies.us |
| Mexico | 5 February 1917 | 109 | federal presidential republic | 16 September 1810 | 215 | Declaration of independence from Spain (recognized 1821) (CIA) | high | Political Constitution of the United Mexican States promulgated 1917-02-05 after Mexican Revolution—still in force (heavily amended). Clear post-revolutionary order. | CIA WF Mexico www.factbook.wiki ; Mexican Constitution (SCJN/WIPO) www.wipo.int |
| Liechtenstein | 5 October 1921 | 104 | constitutional monarchy | 23 January 1719 | 307 | Principality established 1719; independence from HRE 1806-07-12 (CIA) | high | House of Liechtenstein as princely house from elevation 1719. Independence 1806 from HRE; 1866 from German Confederation. Current Constitution 1921-10-05 (amended, notably 2003 strengthening princely powers—same order). Dual-track: house 1719 vs constitution 1921. | CIA WF Liechtenstein www.factbook.wiki |
| Vatican City (Holy See) contested | 11 February 1929 | 97 | elective absolute monarchy (papal) | 11 February 1929 | 97 | Vatican City State created by Lateran Treaty; Holy See separate continuous subject (Papal States origin traditionally 754) | high | DUAL ENTITY: Vatican City State created 1929-02-11 Lateran Treaty (in force 1929-06-07). Holy See retained international personality 1870–1929 without territory; Papal States traditionally from Donation of Pepin 754. Fundamental Law of Vatican City updated 2000/2023 within same state. Primary dates for territorial state=1929; Holy See continuity much older (contested). | CIA WF Holy See www.factbook.wiki ; Lateran Treaty text www.vaticanstate.va |
| Saudi Arabia | 23 September 1932 | 93 | absolute monarchy | 23 September 1932 | 93 | Unification of the kingdom (CIA) | high | Kingdom proclaimed 1932-09-23 by Ibn Saud. House of Saud alliance with Wahhabism traditionally 1744 (First Saudi State)—dynastic roots older than current kingdom. Basic Law 1992 within same order. Primary state and current_gov=1932. | CIA WF Saudi Arabia www.factbook.wiki |
| Iceland | 17 June 1944 | 82 | parliamentary republic | 1 December 1918 | 107 | Sovereign state under Danish Crown (CIA); republic 1944 | high | Republic founded 1944-06-17 ending personal union with Denmark. Sovereignty 1918. Constitution of Republic based on amended 1874/1920 texts. | CIA WF Iceland www.factbook.wiki |
| Japan contested | 3 May 1947 | 79 | constitutional monarchy (symbolic emperor) | 660 BCE | 2,685 | Continuous polity (traditional founding by Emperor Jimmu; mythological; CIA/Britannica) | medium | DUAL-TRACK: Imperial house claims unbroken lineage from Jimmu (660 BCE traditional; historically verifiable from Emperor Kinmei c.539 CE). Current constitutional order is postwar Constitution effective 1947-05-03 (promulgated 1946-11-03). Meiji Constitution 1890 is prior order. State continuity as Japanese polity is continuous despite regime forms; 660 BCE is traditional/mythical—mark contested. Alt state: continuous historical polity from ~6th c.; alt house: 539 CE Kinmei. | CIA WF Independence Japan www.factbook.wiki ; Britannica Jimmu www.britannica.com ; Constitution of Japan www.shugiin.go.jp |
| Israel | 14 May 1948 | 78 | parliamentary republic | 14 May 1948 | 78 | Declaration of independence (CIA) | high | State and Basic Laws constitutional order from 1948-05-14. No single formal constitution; Basic Laws accumulate since 1950s within same regime. | CIA WF Israel www.factbook.wiki |
| North Korea | 9 September 1948 | 78 | socialist one-party state (hereditary leadership) | 9 September 1948 | 78 | DPRK established (CIA lists 1945-08-15 from Japan) | high | DPRK proclaimed 1948-09-09. Continuous Kim-family ruling system since; constitutions amended (1972, 1998, 2016, etc.) within same regime. dynasty_or_house_start marks Kim leadership continuity from founding. | CIA WF Korea North www.factbook.wiki |
| Taiwan (ROC) contested | 25 December 1947 | 78 | semi-presidential republic | 1 January 1912 | 114 | Republic of China founding; effective governance on Taiwan from 1949 (non-UN) | medium | NON-UN. ROC founded 1912-01-01; Constitution of ROC 1947-12-25 still nominal constitutional order. Government relocated to Taiwan 1949. Democratization 1980s–90s and Additional Articles amended constitution without full replacement. Contested: 1912 vs 1945 retrocession vs 1949 retreat vs 1947 constitution. | CIA WF China notes ROC 1912; ROC Constitution 1947 standard refs |
| China contested | 1 October 1949 | 76 | socialist republic (CCP one-party) | 221 BCE | 2,246 | Continuous Chinese polity (Qin unification 221 BCE; contested vs ROC 1912 / PRC 1949 as modern state starts) | medium | Highly contested: continuous civilizational state from Qin 221 BCE vs modern states ROC 1912-01-01 / PRC 1949-10-01. Primary state_start uses continuous-polity Qin date (flag contested); current_gov=PRC founding 1949-10-01 (clear regime). Current PRC Constitution 1982 is amendment within same regime. Taiwan/ROC claims competing state continuity. | CIA WF China www.factbook.wiki ; Digital Archive at the University of Maryland (formerly Wilson Center) PRC Proclamation digitalarchive.umd.edu |
| India | 26 January 1950 | 76 | federal parliamentary republic | 15 August 1947 | 79 | Independence from UK (CIA) | high | Independence 1947-08-15 (Dominion); Constitution of India in force 1950-01-26 (Republic Day)—current constitutional order. | CIA WF India www.factbook.wiki |
| Morocco contested | 2 March 1956 | 70 | constitutional monarchy | 2 March 1956 | 70 | Independence from France (CIA); Alaouite sultanate continuous from 1666 | medium | DUAL-TRACK: Alaouite dynasty from c.1666. Independence restored sovereignty 1956-03-02. Current Constitution 2011 (post-Arab Spring) within monarchy; prior constitutions 1962+. Primary current_gov=1956 independence monarchy restoration; house=1666; constitutional_order=2011. Alt state continuous Alaouite polity from 1666. | CIA WF Morocco www.factbook.wiki |
| France contested | 4 October 1958 | 67 | semi-presidential republic (Fifth Republic) | 10 August 843 | 1,183 | Western Francia from Carolingian division (CIA notable); continuous French state contested | high | Current gov: Constitution of Fifth Republic 1958-10-04 (clear rupture from Fourth Republic). State continuity of France highly contested across Ancien Régime, Revolution 1789, empires, republics. CIA lists 486 Merovingian, 843 Western Francia, 1789, 1792, 1958. | CIA WF France www.factbook.wiki ; Élysée Fifth Republic www.elysee.fr ; Conseil Constitutionnel www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr |
| Monaco | 17 December 1962 | 63 | constitutional monarchy | 1419 | 607 | Beginning of permanent Grimaldi rule (CIA) | high | DUAL-TRACK: House of Grimaldi continuous from 1419. Current Constitution 1962-12-17 (replaced 1911 constitution). State continuity under Grimaldi with French protection treaties. | CIA WF Monaco www.factbook.wiki |
| Nauru | 31 January 1968 | 58 | parliamentary republic | 31 January 1968 | 58 | Independence from AU/NZ/UK UN trusteeship (CIA) | high | Independence and Constitution 1968-01-31. | CIA WF Nauru www.factbook.wiki |
| Sweden | 1 January 1975 | 51 | constitutional monarchy (parliamentary) | 6 June 1523 | 503 | Gustav Vasa elected king; end of Kalmar Union (CIA) | high | DUAL-TRACK: House of Bernadotte from Carl XIV Johan 1818. Current Instrument of Government adopted 1974 (in force 1975-01-01 often cited; Riksdag adopted 1974-03-06)—stripped remaining royal political power. State from 1523. Prior 1809 Instrument was previous constitutional order. | CIA WF Sweden www.factbook.wiki ; Riksdag Constitution www.riksdagen.se ; ILO NATLEX Instrument 1974 natlex.ilo.org |
| Portugal | 25 April 1976 | 50 | semi-presidential republic | 1143 | 883 | Kingdom recognized (CIA); republic 1910; current democracy post-1974 | high | Current Constitution approved 1976-04-02, entered force 1976-04-25 after Carnation Revolution 1974. Clear rupture from Estado Novo. State kingdom from 1143; independence restored 1640; republic 1910. | CIA WF Portugal www.factbook.wiki ; Portuguese Constitution www.parlamento.pt |
| Iran contested | 1 April 1979 | 47 | Islamic republic (theocratic-republican) | 550 BCE | 2,575 | Continuous Persian polity (Achaemenid Empire c.550 BCE; CIA notable earlier date) | medium | State as Iran/Persia continuous civilization contested across Achaemenid (c.550 BCE), Safavid reunification 1501, Qajar 1794, Pahlavi 1925. Current gov: Islamic Republic proclaimed 1979-04-01 after 1979 revolution (monarchy fell 1979-02-11). Clear regime rupture 1979. | CIA WF Iran www.factbook.wiki ; Britannica Iranian Revolution www.britannica.com |
| Spain | 29 December 1978 | 47 | constitutional monarchy | 1492 | 534 | Completion of Reconquista / traditional unification (CIA) | high | Current democratic Constitution published/effective 1978-12-29 after Franco death and Bourbon restoration (Juan Carlos 1975-11-22). Clear rupture from Franco dictatorship. House of Bourbon restored 1975. State traditional 1492 contested as continuous polity through many regimes. | CIA WF Spain www.factbook.wiki ; Spanish Constitution BOE www.tribunalconstitucional.es |
| Tuvalu | 1 October 1978 | 47 | parliamentary constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | 1 October 1978 | 47 | Independence from UK (CIA) | high | Independence and constitution concurrent 1978-10-01. | CIA WF Tuvalu www.factbook.wiki |
| Turkey contested | 7 November 1982 | 43 | presidential republic | 29 October 1923 | 102 | Republic proclaimed succeeding Ottoman Empire (CIA) | medium | Clock starts at the constitution that followed the 1980 military coup. Republic of Turkey founded 1923-10-29—primary current_gov as continuous republican regime. Constitutions 1924, 1961, 1982 (current) and 2017 presidential reform—debate whether 1982 or 1923 is 'order start'. Primary=1923 republic; constitutional_order_start=1982 current text. | CIA WF Turkey www.factbook.wiki |
| South Korea | 25 February 1988 | 38 | presidential republic (Sixth Republic) | 15 August 1948 | 78 | Republic of Korea established (CIA independence from Japan 1945-08-15) | high | Sixth Republic: 1987 constitution effective with 1988-02-25 inauguration after June Democratic Struggle—clear break from authoritarian Fifth Republic. ROK founded 1948-08-15. | CIA WF Korea South www.factbook.wiki ; formation timeline secondary |
| Brazil | 5 October 1988 | 37 | federal presidential republic | 7 September 1822 | 204 | Independence from Portugal (CIA) | high | Current Constitution enacted 1988-10-05 after military dictatorship (1964–85). Independence 1822; empire then republic 1889. | CIA WF Brazil www.factbook.wiki ; STF Constitution www.stf.jus.br |
| Andorra | 14 March 1993 | 33 | parliamentary co-principality | 1278 | 748 | Co-principality under joint suzerainty (Count of Foix / Bishop of Urgell) per CIA | high | State as co-principality from 1278. Current Constitution approved by referendum 1993-03-14 (adopted by Council 1993-02-02). Continuity of co-princes (French head of state + Bishop of Urgell) preserved under new constitution. | CIA WF Andorra www.factbook.wiki ; Andorra Constitution www.icnl.org |
| Russia contested | 12 December 1993 | 32 | federal semi-presidential republic | 25 December 1991 | 34 | Russian Federation successor of USSR (CIA); deeper Muscovite/imperial continuity contested | high | Current Constitution adopted by referendum 1993-12-12. State as RF from USSR dissolution 1991-12-25. Contested continuous Russian state from Muscovy/Empire/USSR. 2020 amendments within same 1993 order. | CIA WF Russia www.factbook.wiki ; RF Constitution (CoE) rm.coe.int |
| Ethiopia contested | 21 August 1995 | 31 | federal parliamentary republic | 100 | 1,926 | Continuous African polity (CIA: Aksumite coalescence ~1st c. BCE/CE; oldest independent in Africa) | medium | State continuity: CIA cites ≥2000 years via Aksum; Solomonic dynasty traditionally 1270–1974 (interrupted 1936–41 Italian occupation). Current gov: FDRE Constitution in force 1995-08-21 (adopted 1994-12-08) after Derg/PDRE rupture 1974–91. Alt state: 1270 Solomonic; alt: 1941 liberation restoration. Dynasty ended 1974. | CIA WF Ethiopia www.factbook.wiki ; FDRE Constitution (Constitute Project) www.constituteproject.org ; WIPO Lex FDRE 1995 www.wipo.int |
| Kosovo contested | 17 February 2008 | 18 | parliamentary republic | 17 February 2008 | 18 | Declaration of independence from Serbia (CIA; partial recognition) | high | NON-UN (partial recognition). Independence declared 2008-02-17; Constitution entered force 2008-06-15. Contested status internationally. | CIA WF Kosovo www.factbook.wiki |
| Egypt contested | 18 January 2014 | 12 | presidential republic | 28 February 1922 | 104 | Independence from UK protectorate (CIA); ancient unification c.3200 BCE noted | medium | Current Constitution approved Jan 2014 (after 2011–13 upheaval). Republic declared 1953-06-18. Ancient continuous civilization contested (CIA c.3200 BCE). Primary current_gov=2014 constitution; alt=1953 republic. | CIA WF Egypt www.factbook.wiki |
| Thailand contested | 6 April 2017 | 9 | constitutional monarchy | 1238 | 788 | Traditional founding Sukhothai; never colonized (CIA) | medium | Clock starts at the constitution that followed the 2014 military coup. DUAL-TRACK: Chakri dynasty from Rama I 1782. Siamese Revolution 1932 ended absolute monarchy—start of constitutional monarchy era (multiple constitutions since; current 2017). Primary current_gov=1932 constitutional rupture; constitutional_order_start=2017 current text; house=1782. State traditional 1238 contested. | CIA WF Thailand www.factbook.wiki ; Chakri/monarchy summaries Britannica-aligned |
The longest-lasting regimes in history
Eight of the ten longest were monarchies, empires or dynasties, which is what almost every state was until the 1800s. The republics on the list, Republic of Venice (1,100 years), Republic of Genoa (698 years), Old Swiss Confederacy (507 years) and Roman Republic (482 years), gave power to a narrow body of citizens.
Show the table, with notes and sources
| Regime | Start | End | Years | Kind | How it ended | Confidence | Notes | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Japanese Imperial House (traditional founding, legendary) contested not charted: alternative dating | 660 BCE | ongoing | 2,686 | hereditary monarchy dynasty | ongoing | low | Traditional accession of Jimmu 11 Feb 660 BCE per Nihon Shoki; scholars treat early emperors as mythical. Included only to document the claim; NOT used for ranking as historical regime. | en.wikipedia.org ; Nihon Shoki tradition; scholarly consensus that Jimmu is mythical |
| Japanese Imperial House (historically verifiable line) contested | 539 | ongoing | 1,487 | hereditary monarchy dynasty | ongoing | medium | Emperor Kinmei (r. c.539–571) is conventional first historically datable emperor; earlier Jimmu tradition (660 BCE) is legendary and not used for duration. Dynasty continuity ≠ constitutional government: emperors often reigned under bakufu (shogunate) rule; postwar 1947 constitution made emperor a symbol. Dual-track: dynasty vs Meiji/postwar constitutional orders. | en.wikipedia.org ; en.wikipedia.org ; Britannica Japanese history summaries |
| Holy See (international personality / papal office continuity) contested not charted: alternative dating | 756 | ongoing | 1,270 | theocratic sovereignty | ongoing | medium | Start date for ranking uses Pepin-era temporal base as a conservative institutional marker; spiritual office claims older apostolic continuity (not used as regime start). Holy See remained a recognized subject of international law 1870–1929 without Papal States territory (concordats, legation). Vatican City State from Lateran Treaty 11 Feb 1929. Contested whether this is one 'government' across temporal loss. | opil.ouplaw.com ; Kelsen/status literature via uniset.ca PDF on Holy See |
| Byzantine Empire / Eastern Roman Empire contested | 330 | 1453 | 1,123 | imperial monarchy | Ottoman conquest of Constantinople 29 May 1453 | high | Conventional start: Constantine’s Constantinople (dedication 330; founded 324). Alternate starts: Diocletian 284; Theodosius I death 395; fall of West 476; Heraclius 610. Inhabitants called themselves Romans; 'Byzantine' is modern label. Continuity of Roman imperial institutions in East. Latin Empire interlude 1204–1261 interrupted capital but successor states claimed continuity; restored 1261–1453. | www.worldhistory.org ; Chronology of the Byzantine Empire (DOI 10.1057/9780230505865); Kaldellis The New Roman Empire (OUP) |
| Papal States (temporal sovereignty) contested | 756 | 1870 | 1,114 | theocratic monarchy | Italian capture of Rome 1870; Lateran Treaty 1929 created Vatican City | high | Britannica: papal temporal sovereignty from Pepin’s Donation 756 to 1870. Napoleonic interruptions (Roman Republic 1798–99; French annexation 1809–14; 1849 republic) briefly ruptured control but restored. Distinct from Holy See’s continuous international personality (retained 1870–1929 without territory). | www.britannica.com ; en.wikipedia.org ; Oxford PIL Holy See |
| Venetian Republic (La Serenissima) contested | 697 | 1797 | 1,100 | oligarchic republic | Great Council dissolution / Manin abdication 12 May 1797; Campo Formio | medium | Traditional first doge Paolo Lucio Anafesto 697 (historicity disputed). De facto autonomy gradual; Pactum Lotharii 840 is earliest major treaty with Carolingians (not full sovereignty recognition). End undisputed 1797 under Napoleon. Duration ~1100 years by traditional count; conservative scholars prefer 8th–9th c. institutionalization. | en.wikipedia.org ; historywalksvenice.com ; Fontes Istrie Pactum Lotharii 840 |
| Holy Roman Empire (Carolingian start alternate) contested not charted: alternative dating | 800 | 1806 | 1,006 | elective imperial confederation | Francis II abdication 6 Aug 1806 | medium | Alternate periodization from Charlemagne’s coronation 25 Dec 800. Title lapsed mid-10th c. before Otto I revival; many historians treat Carolingian and Ottonian empires as distinct. | en.wikipedia.org ; World History Encyclopedia HRE |
| Holy Roman Empire contested | 962 | 1806 | 844 | elective imperial confederation | Francis II abdication 6 Aug 1806 | high | Scholarly preferred start: Otto I imperial coronation 962. Alternate: Charlemagne 800 (Carolingian Empire usually treated separately). Highly decentralized; contested as unitary 'government' vs composite elective empire. End exact 1806. | www.worldhistory.org ; en.wikipedia.org ; Oxford PIL Holy Roman Empire |
| Kingdom of France — Capetian house continuity (senior+cadet) contested | 987 | 1792 | 805 | hereditary monarchy dynasty | French Revolution abolishes monarchy 1792 (restored 1814–1848 under Capetian cadets) | medium | Hugh Capet 987; direct Capetians to 1328, then Valois and Bourbon cadet branches—same agnatic house. Interrupted 1792–1814 (and 1815); ended again 1848. Contested whether cadet-branch successions = one regime; constitutional order changed (e.g. absolute vs early modern). Restoration 1814–1848 adds Capetian years but not continuous. | en.wikipedia.org |
| Zhou dynasty (Western+Eastern as dynastic label) contested | 1046 BCE | 256 BCE | 790 | dynastic feudal monarchy | Qin conquest; last Zhou king deposed 256 BCE | medium | Britannica 1046–256 BCE (~790 yrs). Western Zhou 1046–771 more centralized; after 771 Eastern Zhou royal house lost effective control during Spring & Autumn / Warring States—civilizational/dynastic label more than continuous unitary government. Contested for 'regime' ranking. | www.britannica.com ; Columbia AFE China timeline |
| Portuguese monarchy (Kingdom of Portugal) contested | 1139 | 1910 | 771 | hereditary monarchy | 5 Oct 1910 republican revolution | high | Kingdom from Afonso I 1139; dynastic houses changed (Burgundy/Afonsine, Aviz, Habsburg personal union 1580–1640, Braganza). Iberian Union 1580–1640 is contested continuity of Portuguese state under Spanish Habsburgs. Distinct from Portuguese Empire colonial duration. | en.wikipedia.org |
| Abbasid dynasty (incl. Cairo ceremonial line) contested not charted: alternative dating | 750 | 1517 | 767 | hereditary caliphate ceremonial | Ottoman conquest of Egypt 1517 | medium | Includes Mamluk-era Cairo Abbasids lacking independent political power. Not equivalent to continuous governing regime. | en.wikipedia.org |
| Solomonic dynasty (Ethiopian Empire) contested | 1270 | 1974 | 704 | hereditary monarchy dynasty | Derg coup deposes Haile Selassie 1974; monarchy abolished 1975 | medium | Founded by Yekuno Amlak 1270 overthrowing Zagwe. Legendary Solomon–Sheba descent not historical. Interruptions: Era of Princes (Zemene Mesafint) decentralized authority; Italian occupation 1936–1941 displaced emperor. Haile Selassie’s line partly female-line. Strongly contested as unbroken 'government'. | en.wikipedia.org ; en.wikipedia.org |
| Republic of Genoa contested | 1099 | 1797 | 698 | oligarchic republic | French conquest; Ligurian Republic 1797 (brief 1814 revival then Sardinian annexation 1815) | medium | Self-governing commune conventionally from late 11th c. (often 1099). Andrea Doria constitution 1528 reformed oligarchy. Shorter than Venice but long-lived maritime republic. | en.wikipedia.org |
| Ottoman Empire contested | 1299 | 1922 | 623 | imperial monarchy | Sultanate abolished by Grand National Assembly 1 Nov 1922 (caliphate abolished 3 Mar 1924) | high | Traditional founding c.1299 under Osman I; formation gradual c.1300 (Battle of Bapheus 1302 often first clear documentary milestone). End: sultanate 1922; Republic 29 Oct 1923; caliphate 1924. | en.wikipedia.org ; Inalcık classical age framing c.1300; Quataert Ottoman Empire 1700–1922 |
| Portuguese Empire (colonial) contested | 1415 | 1999 | 584 | colonial empire | Handover of Macau to China 20 Dec 1999 | high | From conquest of Ceuta 1415 to Macau handover 1999. Spans monarchy and republican Portugal; colonial administration transformed (overseas provinces under Estado Novo). Not a single constitutional 'government'—empire/polity continuity under changing metropole regimes. | en.wikipedia.org ; en.wikipedia.org |
| Joseon dynasty (Yi) — dynastic rule to annexation contested not charted: alternative dating | 1392 | 1910 | 518 | dynastic monarchy | Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty; announced 29 Aug 1910 | high | Britannica: 1392–1910. Kingdom renamed Korean Empire 1897 (same Yi house); polity-name change vs dynastic end. Alternate: Joseon kingdom period 1392–1897 (505 yrs). | www.britannica.com ; en.wikipedia.org |
| Abbasid Caliphate (Baghdad political caliphate) contested | 750 | 1258 | 508 | hereditary caliphate | Mongol sack of Baghdad; execution of al-Musta'sim 1258 | high | Effective political power waned under Buyids (from 945) and Seljuks (from 1055); caliphs often figureheads for long stretches—regime continuity vs real sovereignty contested. Cairo Abbasid shadow caliphate under Mamluks 1261–1517 is ceremonial (exclude from primary political duration). | en.wikipedia.org |
| Old Swiss Confederacy contested | 1291 | 1798 | 507 | confederation | French invasion; Helvetic Republic 1798 | medium | Federal Charter of 1291 traditional founding (Swiss admin.ch); scholarship questions exact 1291 dating (Sablonier et al.). Alternate traditional 1307/1315. Confederacy restored 1815–1848 then replaced by 1848 federal state (rupture). Pre-1848 confederation ≠ modern Swiss federal government. | www.admin.ch ; en.wikipedia.org ; Swiss National Museum blog on 1291 |
| Old Kingdom of Egypt (period, multi-dynasty) contested | 2686 BCE | 2181 BCE | 505 | pharaonic kingdom period | Collapse into First Intermediate Period | medium | Conventional Dynasties 3–6 c.2686–2181 BCE (Shaw). Pyramid Age. Multi-dynasty period; absolute dates debated (High/Low chronologies). | en.wikipedia.org ; British Museum timeline ; Shaw 2000 |
| Joseon kingdom (to Korean Empire proclamation) | 1392 | 1897 | 505 | dynastic monarchy | Gojong proclaims Korean Empire 13 Oct 1897 | high | Official end of Joseon kingdom name; dynasty continued to 1910. | en.wikipedia.org ; en.wikipedia.org |
| Roman Republic contested | 509 BCE | 27 BCE | 482 | oligarchic republic | Octavian becomes Augustus 27 BCE; Principate begins | medium | Traditional overthrow of Tarquins 509 BCE (early Republic partly legendary). End conventionally 27 BCE Augustan settlement (alternates: Actium 31 BCE; Caesar dictatorship). Longest classical republican order. | en.wikipedia.org ; Mommsen Principate/Dominate framework |
| New Kingdom of Egypt (period, multi-dynasty) contested | 1550 BCE | 1069 BCE | 481 | pharaonic kingdom period | End of 20th Dynasty; Third Intermediate Period | medium | Shaw/Oxford chronology c.1550–1069 BCE (Dynasties 18–20). Period of imperial peak but multiple dynasties—civilizational periodization, not one dynasty. Dates approx.; radiocarbon broadly supports. | British Museum Egypt timeline ; Shaw Oxford History of Ancient Egypt ; en.wikipedia.org |
| Goryeo dynasty | 918 | 1392 | 474 | dynastic monarchy | Overthrown by Yi Seong-gye; Joseon founded 1392 | high | Wang Geon (Taejo) founded 918; unified peninsula 936. Military regime periods and Mongol suzerainty but dynastic line continuous to 1392. | en.wikipedia.org ; Britannica Korea history |
| Han dynasty (Western+Eastern, with Xin interregnum) contested | 206 BCE | 220 | 426 | imperial dynasty | Abdication to Cao Wei 220 CE | high | Britannica 206 BCE–220 CE. Xin dynasty usurpation 9–23 CE under Wang Mang interrupts; Eastern Han restored 25 CE. Often counted as one Han era despite rupture. | www.britannica.com ; Columbia AFE timeline |
| Middle Kingdom of Egypt (period, multi-dynasty) contested | 2055 BCE | 1650 BCE | 405 | pharaonic kingdom period | Second Intermediate Period / Hyksos | medium | Conventional c.2055–1650 BCE (Dynasties 11–13). Multi-dynasty periodization. | British Museum timeline ; Shaw Oxford History chronology |
| Habsburg Monarchy (composite crowns Bohemia/Hungary/Austria) contested | 1526 | 1918 | 392 | composite monarchy | Dissolution after WWI 1918 | high | 1526 acquisition of Bohemian & Hungarian crowns marks classic start of East-Central Habsburg power. Reconstituted as Austrian Empire 1804; Dual Monarchy 1867—legal forms changed; house continuity strong. Alpine Habsburg lands older (from 13th c.). | Cambridge History Nationhood Habsburg chapter ; en.wikipedia.org |
| United Kingdom constitutional monarchy (post-Glorious Revolution settlement) contested | 1689 | ongoing | 337 | constitutional monarchy | ongoing | medium | Bill of Rights 1689 after Glorious Revolution establishes parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Contested: monarchy house continuity older; Commonwealth rupture 1649–1660; Act of Union 1707 creates Great Britain (new state identity); UK 1801. Ranking as current constitutional order often uses 1689 or 1707. | en.wikipedia.org ; UK Parliament Act of Union key dates |
| Song dynasty contested | 960 | 1279 | 319 | imperial dynasty | Mongol conquest; end of Southern Song 1279 | high | Northern Song 960–1127; Southern Song 1127–1279 after loss of north to Jin—same dynasty, truncated territory. | Columbia AFE China timeline ; Britannica Song |
| Kingdom of Great Britain / UK (union polity) contested not charted: alternative dating | 1707 | ongoing | 319 | constitutional monarchy union state | ongoing | high | Acts of Union 1707 England+Scotland → Great Britain; 1801 Ireland union → UK. State continuity clock distinct from regime/dynasty. | www.parliament.uk |
| Roman Principate contested | 27 BCE | 284 | 311 | imperial principate | Diocletian accession; Dominate begins conventionally 284 | high | Mommsen framework: princeps as 'first citizen' with republican forms. Crisis of Third Century blurs end; 284 conventional Dominate start. | en.wikipedia.org ; Mommsen constitutional history |
| Tang dynasty | 618 | 907 | 289 | imperial dynasty | Collapse; Five Dynasties period | high | Britannica 618–907. Brief Zhou interregnum under Wu Zetian 690–705 sometimes noted. | www.britannica.com |
| Ming dynasty | 1368 | 1644 | 276 | imperial dynasty | Fall of Beijing to Li Zicheng/Qing 1644 (Southern Ming rump to 1662) | high | Columbia/Britannica 1368–1644. | Columbia AFE timeline |
| Zhou dynasty — Western Zhou (effective royal authority) not charted: alternative dating | 1046 BCE | 771 BCE | 275 | dynastic feudal monarchy | Quanrong sack of Haojing; court flight east 771 BCE | high | Period of relatively stronger Zhou royal authority before Eastern Zhou fragmentation. | www.britannica.com ; Columbia AFE China timeline |
| Ptolemaic dynasty (Egypt) | 305 BCE | 30 BCE | 275 | hellenistic dynastic monarchy | Death of Cleopatra VII; Roman annexation 30 BCE | high | Longest single ruling house of ancient Egypt by years (~275); Macedonian Greek, not native Manethonian dynasty. | en.wikipedia.org ; Live Science longest dynasty article |
| Qing dynasty | 1644 | 1912 | 268 | imperial dynasty | Abdication; Republic of China 1912 | high | Manchu Qing rule over China proper from 1644 (dynasty proclaimed earlier in Manchuria 1636). Ends Feb 1912. | Columbia AFE timeline |
| Unified Silla | 668 | 935 | 267 | dynastic monarchy | Submission to Goryeo 935 | high | Britannica Unified Silla 668–935 after conquest of Goguryeo. | www.britannica.com ; en.wikipedia.org |
| Tokugawa shogunate (Edo bakufu) | 1603 | 1868 | 265 | military dictatorship bakufu | Meiji Restoration 3 Jan 1868 (taisei hōkan Nov 1867) | high | Ieyasu shogun 1603; Britannica often 1603–1867. Clear bakufu regime distinct from imperial house. | www.britannica.com ; en.wikipedia.org |
| Egyptian 18th Dynasty (longest Manethonian native dynasty) not charted: alternative dating | 1550 BCE | 1295 BCE | 255 | pharaonic dynasty | Transition to 19th Dynasty | medium | Shaw: c.1550–1295 BCE (~255 yrs). Live Science / Van De Mieroop: longest Manethonian dynasty ~250 yrs; Ptolemaic Greek dynasty longer (~275) but foreign house. | www.livescience.com ; Shaw chronology via Wikipedia Conventional Egyptian chronology |
| Safavid Empire contested | 1501 | 1722 | 221 | dynastic monarchy | Fall of Isfahan to Hotaks 1722 (formal end under Nader 1736) | high | Iranica: Safavids ruled Persia 1501–1722. Puppet Safavids to 1736. Established Twelver Shiʿism as state religion. | www.iranicaonline.org ; Encyclopaedia Iranica Safavids |
| Han dynasty — Western/Former Han only not charted: alternative dating | 206 BCE | 9 | 215 | imperial dynasty | Wang Mang establishes Xin 9 CE | high | Uninterrupted Western Han to Xin usurpation. | Britannica Han ; Columbia AFE |
| Han dynasty — Eastern/Later Han only not charted: alternative dating | 25 | 220 | 195 | imperial dynasty | End of Han 220 CE | high | Restored Han after Xin. | Britannica Han ; Columbia AFE |
| Roman Dominate (to fall of West) contested | 284 | 476 | 192 | imperial autocracy | Deposition of Romulus Augustulus 476 (West); East continues | medium | Dominus ('lord') overt autocracy from Diocletian. Eastern Dominate continues as Byzantine—do not double-count with Byzantine row if using 284 start. | EBSCO Dominate in Rome ; Principate Wikipedia |
| Qajar dynasty contested | 1794 | 1925 | 131 | dynastic monarchy | Deposed; Pahlavi dynasty begins 1925 | high | Āghā Moḥammad Khān consolidated by 1794; crowned 1796. Alternate start 1789. Britannica Qajar. | www.britannica.com ; en.wikipedia.org |
| Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu imperial phase) contested | 1438 | 1533 | 95 | imperial monarchy | Spanish capture/execution of Atahualpa; Cusco taken 1533 (Neo-Inca to 1572) | medium | Imperial expansion under Pachacuti traditionally from c.1438; earlier Kingdom of Cusco longer. Short compared to Old World regimes. | Standard Andean chronology; conquest narratives 1532–33 |
| Aztec Triple Alliance | 1428 | 1521 | 93 | hegemonic alliance empire | Fall of Tenochtitlan 1521 | high | Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan from 1428; ~93 years. | www.history.com |
| Umayyad Caliphate (Damascus) | 661 | 750 | 89 | hereditary caliphate | Abbasid Revolution 750 | high | 661–750; surviving branch founded Córdoba emirate/caliphate separately. | en.wikipedia.org |
| Soviet Union (USSR) | 1922 | 1991 | 69 | one party socialist federation | Dissolution Dec 1991 | high | Treaty on Creation of the USSR 30 Dec 1922; dissolved 1991. Modern short regime for contrast. | Standard; CIA Factbook / encyclopedic consensus |
| Austrian Empire | 1804 | 1867 | 63 | imperial monarchy | Ausgleich / Dual Monarchy 1867 | high | Proclaimed 1804 by Francis II/I overlapping HRE until 1806. | en.wikipedia.org |
| Austria-Hungary (Dual Monarchy) | 1867 | 1918 | 51 | dual constitutional monarchy | WWI collapse 1918 | high | Austro-Hungarian Compromise 1867 to 1918. | en.wikipedia.org |
| Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia contested | 1945 | 1992 | 47 | one party socialist federation | Breakup 1991–92; FRY constitution Apr 1992 | high | AVNOJ/postwar socialist Yugoslavia; wartime Partisan state earlier. Dissolution contested dating 1991–92. | en.wikipedia.org |
What this shows and what it doesn't
- It isn't every country. The 42 countries were chosen as notable or disputed cases: very old states, very old governments, and countries whose dates are often argued over. Of them, 32 are democracies or limited governments today.
- Lasting isn't the same as free. Oman's absolute monarchy (since 1744) has outlasted all but two of the democracies and limited governments here. A long run can come from repression as easily as from consent.
- A break is a break. The clock resets the same way whether a dictatorship gives way to democracy, as in Spain in 1978, or a coup ends an elected government, as in Thailand in 2014.
- The dates are judgment calls. When a state began and whether a change was a break or a reform are often disputed, and the notes give the alternatives.
One way to read the first chart fits this site's argument: governments that let people change their rulers and their laws can adapt without being overthrown. A set this small can't prove it, and the counterexamples are real.
Where the dates come from
Both tables were compiled by the automated research pass described on the method page, from constitutions, treaties, the CIA World Factbook, Britannica and scholarly histories, and every row lists its sources. They haven't yet been checked by a person. Download them from the data page, and tell us about mistakes.